Football hooliganism
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Hooliganism already existed in the last century. Modern hooliganism exists since the sixties in several countries. Boys and young men, aged between 15 and 25, collectively engage in fights, demolitions and provocations. Their main targets are other groups, who only differ from them in their being composed of fans of another football team.
In commentaries following incidents it is commonly stated that these "fans" do not deserve to be called supporters of their team. Other reports indicate that the hooligans consider themselves to be the true fans: they support the team for better and for worse, they create the highly praised "atmosphere" inside stadia. However that may be, their allegiance to a football team is the main factor binding hooligans together. Their main interest does not seem so much to see brilliant football, but to see their team win. In addition, hooligans have their own match with rival fans. Sometimes that match is the most important one. Football matches are used as an opportunity.
The behaviour of the hooligans seems to be aimed at gaining prestige. The ability to fight, group solidarity and loyalty, plus the aggressive defence of culturally defined areas, are all elements of a satisfying masculine identity. Fighting at football is largely about young males testing out their own reputations for manliness against those of other similarly motivated young men.


Tackling hooliganism
Integrated approach:
Over the years, it has become increasingly clear that the police cannot and should not deal with hooliganism on its own and that an integrated approach is called for, involving all parties.
In practice, measures tend to focus on the way in which hooliganism manifests itself, in part because the rivalry between supporters is a factor that is hard to influence. Changes in the infrastructure of stadia (fences, cameras, all-seater stadia) make surveillance and separation of fans easier, as do ticketing arrangements. However, a one-sided focus on security measures may be detrimental to an atmosphere of friendliness.
Well-trained stewards may contribute significantly to hospitality and an early signalling of potential trouble inside stadia. The behaviour of players, coaches and club-officials also influences fan behaviour. Fan societies also play a role.
Security forces deal with public order and the arrest of offenders. Public prosecutors and judges deal with apprehended offenders. Train and bus companies are involved in the transport of fans. Local authorities have their own priorities.
To prevent excesses in hooliganism, all these parties have to develop policies and co-operate with one another. If the different policies are not made explicit, if they are not integrated with one another and if arrangements are not binding, they will not work as expected.

Conclusion
Football hooliganism is detrimental to the sport. Partly as a result of safety measures taken in the past, the manifestations of hooliganism have changed. To avoid excesses in hooliganism in future, repressive measures will have to be complemented by a social-preventive approach.
From what we know, several elements are critical to avoid excesses in hooliganism:
- sound (international) co-operation and co-ordination;
- active involvement of clubs and national and international football authorities;
- an integrated approach with binding arrangements for all parties involved;
- investing in information about fans and hooligans;
- where possible, excluding hooligans from attending matches (and influencing other fans);
- communicating with fans/ hooligans by police, clubs/ stewards and fan coaches;
- a long-term commitment, not just focusing on incidents and short-term measures.